2.4: Classical theories of learning.

Week 3: 15th -21st May (Activities: 2.6 & 2.7)

In this section the most influential classical theories of learning (behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist) will be reviewed in chronological order corresponding to their period of highest dominance in instructional design. These theories still inform many of the workplace approaches to learning and development, and constructivist approaches are particularly popular (CIPD, 2015c).

Behaviourist theories

Behaviourist approaches dominated learning theory from the early twentieth century into the 1950s. During this time, the field of psychology was predominantly regarded as a natural science rather like biology or physics. Accordingly, two key ideas are needed to understand behaviourist approaches:

1. Learning can only be studied as a change in observable behaviour.

   The object of study within a natural science ought to be observable and measurable. Thus, just as water can be observed and measured, learning can be measured as a change in the form or frequency of observable behaviour. In other words, no attention is given to thoughts or emotions as these cannot be scientifically observed.

2. Environment determines behaviour.

   This can be represented by a simple physics experiment based on heating water to 100°C. If you do this (cause), the water will boil (effect). Behaviourist theories of learning assume that behaviour is determined by the environment in a similar cause-and-effect fashion. Behaviourists aimed to investigate ways in which the environment could be manipulated (for example, arranging a classroom in a particular way) in order to trigger a particular behaviour (such as promoting more collaborative behaviour).

Behaviourist theories have deep roots in longstanding debates about what is reality (ontology) and how knowledge is developed (epistemology). These are important philosophical ideas that inform different theories about learning. The following ideas about ontology and epistemology underpin behaviourist theories about learning:

• Ontology: Behaviourists hold an objective view of the world, which is that the world exists independently of the learner and there is an objective reality to be learned. The role of the educator, then, is to assist the learner to learn about the world ‘out there’. This is also known as objectivism.
• Epistemology: Behaviourist theory is rooted in the philosophical perspective that knowledge is acquired through the senses and through experience.

Behaviourist learning theories were the result of experimental work initially conducted with animals and later with humans, often under highly controlled experimental conditions. There are two key learning theories in this sphere: classic conditioning and operant conditioning. These are explained in Video 2.3: The difference between classical and operant conditioning, and the main points are summarised in Box 2.2.

Video 2.3: TED Ed – The difference between classical and operant conditioning

Box 2.2: Classic conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) developed this theory building on his experiments with dogs. The main points of classic conditioning theory are:

• Hard-wired reflexes are made up of unconditioned stimuli (for example, food) and unconditioned responses (e.g. salivation).
• By presenting any stimulus (neutral stimulus, such as a bell in Pavlov’s experiment) together with an unconditioned stimulus (for example, food) enough times the subject learns the association between them.
• Subsequently, the neutral stimulus (bell) triggers the unconditioned response (i.e. salivation). This is now a learned behaviour: the bell becomes the conditioned stimulus and salivation its conditioned response.

Box 2.3: Operant conditioning

Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) was influential in developing this theory but the main proponent was B.F. Skinner (1904–1990). The main points of operant conditioning theory are:

• Responses (or behaviours) that are reinforced positively (that is, followed by positive consequences) or negatively (that is, by removing a negative consequence) are more likely to occur again.

• Variable reinforcement (i.e. where reinforcement is given after a behaviour is performed an unpredictable number of times) can make a behavioural change more lasting and produce more powerful learning than if the behaviour is reinforced every time.

Practical application

We will now explore how these theories explain work events and inform the design of learning interventions. Suppose you had given a terrible presentation in front of colleagues. As you realised that you had lost the attention of the audience, your hands could be sweating and your heart rate increasing. If this were to happen again in the same room, classic conditioning would predict that by merely entering the room and remembering the presentation, you would experience these stress responses. Fortunately, practice will help you overcome that difficulty partly because you will have the opportunity to associate the experience of presenting with other positive experiences (e.g. good feedback, opportunity to showcase your work).

In contemporary HRD practice, principles of operant conditioning may still be relevant when the learning need is associated with particular observable behaviours (e.g. operating a machine, dealing with a customer, health and safety). In these occasions the trainer must consider the following elements:

1. The prompts for a particular behaviour (called stimulus). For instance, if you are training call centre staff to answer customer calls following a particular script, the stimulus would be the client’s phone call.
2. The actual elements of the behaviour to be trained. In the previous example this might be the smile, the tone of voice, and the script to be enacted.
3. The type of reinforcement and the circumstances under which reinforcement is given. Normally continuous reinforcement is given in the early stages of the process, and then this switches to variable reinforcement as the learning progresses and the behaviour is consolidated. For example, the trainer observing customers’ calls may at first praise the trainee every time he or she says the right words when dealing with a complaint, and as the learning progresses the trainer may praise him or her less frequently and at random times

Activity 2.6: Behaviourism in practice

Timing:

Cognitive theories

Cognitive theories began to become popular around the 1950s and emerged as a strong reaction against the simplistic account of human behaviour provided by behaviourists. Their main criticism of behaviourist theories was the denial of internal mental processes as factors in the learning experience. Instead they argue that human memory is central to understanding how humans learn, and that having an understanding of how memory works helps trainers to be more effective in their learning interventions. They used a computer metaphor to illustrate how the human mind operates like an active information processor (organising, classifying and storing information) and that prior knowledge plays a key role in anchoring this information (Stewart and Cureton, 2014).

In relation to their philosophical roots, cognitive approaches, like behaviourism, share an objective view of the world. That is, that the world exists independently of the learner and the role of the educator is to help the learner to learn about that world. In contrast to behaviourist theories, cognitive theories are linked to rationalist approaches. This means broadly that they put reason or logical thinking at the core of knowledge development.

Practical application

Because of the importance cognitive theories place on the development and acquisition of knowledge, a great deal of effort is spent on analysing how trainers can best enable learners to process and store new information effectively. For instance, when designing performance appraisal training, a trainer who builds on cognitive theory may deem important that learners understand and remember the principles underlying goal setting theory. Thus, the trainer may take these steps:

1. examine best ways to present information so that this can be easily assimilated
2. provide tools and strategies for easier memorisation of key principles
3. pitch the delivery at the level of understanding that the learners have (investigating their prior knowledge).

Constructivist theories

Constructivist theories emerged when some theorists began to question the objectivist view of reality underlying behaviourist and cognitive approaches. They questioned the idea (or ontological position) that there is a world ‘out there’ and that the aim of learning should be about mapping that world into someone’s mind. Constructivists emphasise the uniqueness of each learning experience as individuals develop meaning through their own interactions with the environment.

Two broad classifications can be made within this paradigm: cognitive constructivism and social constructivism.

Box 2.4: Cognitive constructivism

This approach is built on the premise that there is a world ‘out there’ but that this can only be known through our own interpretation of it. There will be an accepted meaning of a concept but each person’s definition and understanding of it will be influenced by their own values, beliefs and life experiences.

This approach is mainly represented by the work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Like the cognitive theories, cognitive constructivism pays attention to the mental processes but it is the role of active interaction with the environment that is key. According to Piaget, this is accomplished through two processes:

• assimilation: new experiences are assimilated into existing and previous mental models.
• accommodation: experiences are so novel and unique that existing mental models cannot explain them and a process of accommodation takes place whereby existing mental models are altered.

Box 2.5: Social constructivism

The social constructivist adopts a more radical view of the construction of knowledge. Unlike cognitive constructivism, it rejects the idea of there being a ‘true’ reality to be interpreted by the learner. This perspective is often associated with the sociocultural theory of Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) who highlights the role of social interaction and culture in the development of cognitive functions. This aligns with the idea of situated learning, which is covered later in the unit.

Practical application

The strong influence of these approaches can be appreciated today in the shift from ‘training and development’, associated with traditional instructor-led activities, to ‘learning and development’, which emphasises the active role of the learner. Constructivism is one of the key learning theories that explains the effectiveness behind coaching and mentoring in the workplace. You will learn more about this in Units 6 and 7.

Social cognitive theory

Social cognitive theory is presented separately from the behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist theory clusters because it actually integrates ideas from all them. This theory, developed by Albert Bandura (1925–), conceptualises learning as the outcome of social interactions which results in the development of shared understandings of social and individual behaviour (Bandura, 1977). In this sense, the ontological position is more in line with that held by constructivism. According to this theory:

1. We learn by observing behaviour and the consequences of that behaviour – both intentionally and unintentionally. For example, we might see that a behaviour we are fearful of (e.g. getting into the deep end of the swimming pool) does not have negative outcomes for others (e.g. our friends) and decide to do it ourselves.
2. We store a mental model of experiences without necessarily having to execute the behaviour at that point. We can watch someone dance and store that information for when we next perform the dance ourselves.
3. We can self-regulate our behaviour. For instance, we can manage the stimulus and the consequences of our actions. You can give yourself a lovely treat after a difficult exam and this treat may help you stick to your study pattern!

An important contribution of Bandura is that he found that self-regulation processes of planning, self-monitoring and persistence in goal attainment (Noe et al., 2013; Sitzmann and Ely, 2011) were strongly influenced by self-efficacy (i.e. an individual’s belief about his or her abilities to achieve a goal). In general, the higher the self-efficacy an individual has about a specific goal, the stronger the effort, persistence, motivation and resilience he or she will have towards achieving this goal. This is important for HRD practitioners because having an understanding of a learner’s self-efficacy in relation to the task will influence the success (or lack of it) of the learning intervention they design.

Practical application

The idea that we learn by observing others (i.e. the ‘model of that behaviour’) is at the heart of on-the-job training approaches. For example, if you needed to train call centre staff on dealing with difficult complaints, you might ask trainees to spend some time observing how more experienced colleagues talk to customers and how customers react. You would then gradually ask trainees to start ‘imitating’ that behaviour and seek feedback from the model.

Equally important for trainers are the ideas about the motivational power of each trainee’s self-efficacy. For instance, in a coaching intervention the coach might want to start by exploring the learner’s self-efficacy in relation to the specific goals to be achieved as this would be key to the success of the intervention. In fact, self-efficacy seems to be a by-product of effective coaching interventions (Baron and Morin, 2010).

Identifying learning theories

Table 2.1 summarises the classical viewpoints on learning theory. (Social cognitive theory is not covered because, as discussed, it combines elements of the three other theories.)

Table 2.1: Behaviourist, cognitive and constructivist theories of learning design

Key questions influencing learning design	Behaviourist theories	Cognitive theories	Constructivist theories
1. How does learning occur?	Responses (i.e. behaviours) that are reinforced (i.e. followed by positive consequences or that stop negative consequences) are more likely to occur again	New information is coded, structured and stored in a meaningful way	Learners build interpretations of the world based on their experiences
2. What is the role of the learner?	Reactive to the environment	Active information processor	Learners are, as it were, in constant interaction with the context, co-creating knowledge
3. What is the role of memory?	Irrelevant as this is an internal process and the focus is on observable behaviour. Periodic practice of the behaviour keeps associations fresh	Crucial – learning is being able to effectively store in the memory; forgetting is defined as an inability to retrieve what was once stored	Memory is evolving constantly as interactions occur
4. What types of learning are best explained by the theory?	Recalling facts Defining and illustrating concepts Applying learned procedures	Reasoning Problem solving Memorising	Learning activities do not differentiate between content and context; both are seen to affect learning Situations where one can challenge previously held views about what different concepts mean within complex environments. One can test and develop knowledge through interaction
5. Which factors influence learning?	An environment and/or approach based on instruction Repeated instruction and practice The learner’s previous learning is considered as baseline but this is less important than the contingent reinforcement of the desired behaviour	Reinforcement/correction is necessary but not sufficient The learner is encouraged to use the ‘right’ strategies to aid the mental processes such as proper planning and goal setting. The idea is that information processing strategies will help integrate new information with prior knowledge	The interaction between the learner and his or her environment. Content needs to be embedded in the situation in which it is used
6. How does transfer occur?	Similar context to where the learning took place evokes the desired behaviour	Individuals have to evaluate the suitability of the knowledge they are given for it to be retrieved effectively. ‘Storing’ strategies allow future transfer – storing of both knowledge and uses of that knowledge	By making sure that the selected learning tasks are relevant to the students’ experiences
7. Translating theories into practical design tips	About the learner Pre-assessment of students to establish baseline of knowledge and find out each learner’s preferred choice of reinforcement Structure of the task Emphasis on observable behaviour and measurable outcomes Break down tasks into different levels, preferably progressing from simple to more complex Careful consideration and selection of which prompts would be most effective in producing the desired behaviour Clear description of what the desired response should look like Opportunity for reinforcement; for example, providing feedback Plenty of opportunities to rehearse these associations	About the learner Identify learners’ previous knowledge so that any new information can be easily assimilated into existing schemas Structure of the task Help the learner to engage in structuring, organising and sequencing to enable optimal processing Learning should be meaningful to enable effective storage and future retrieval Create tasks that enable learners to make connections with their previous knowledge; for example, the use of analogies and metaphors Practise the task and give feedback on how it went	About the learner Emphasis on the learner having control over the construction of his/her own learning Structure of the task An authentic context Information is presented from different perspectives The use of problem solving skills might be useful Show students how to construct knowledge, promote collaboration to exemplify multiple perspectives, and arrive at self-chosen perspective The trainer’s role becomes to support the learner in the process of making sense or constructing knowledge

In Activity 2.7 you will examine in more detail how the assumptions of the classical viewpoints we have outlined so far influence learning design and, as a result, the effectiveness of the learning intervention. You will be asked to identify the types of learning theory or theories that could have been used to inform each learning scenario in Part 2. You may find it helpful to refer to Table 2.1 as you work through the activity.

Activity 2.7: Applying learning theories to practice

Traditional approaches to training, where the idea was that knowledge was transferred from the instructor (expert) to the learner in a passive fashion, were informed by behaviourist and cognitive approaches to learning. These are still used, and are sometimes appropriate, but such approaches are often criticised as being insufficient to explain the complexity of learning that takes place in organisations. Earlier in the unit it was highlighted that developments in learning theories have contributed to the shift to learner-focused approaches in training and development. Constructivist theories, which emphasise the importance of linking learning and context, and learners’ unique interpretations of the world, dominate many of the HRD and learning interventions taking place today. Some of the most common examples are on-the-job training and coaching (CIPD, 2015b; 2015c). There are also other contemporary approaches to learning which equally influence workplace learning. These are explored in the following section.